Synthesis of p-bromobenzoic acid from benzene



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Electronegativity

 Eletronegativity:  It is the ability of an atom to attract the electrons(usually the shared electrons in the bond). The electronegativity can be measured by Linus Pauling   scale it has no unit and rang from 0.7 for Cesium(Cs) and Francium(Fr), the lowest values in the periodic table to 4.0 for Flour (F) the highest value in the periodic table. There are a periodic table found with each atom value in textbook or the internet. The electronegativity is increasing going from left to right and from bottom to top in the periodic table. The electronegativity difference between to bonded atoms determine whither the bond is covalent, polar covalent, or ionic as follow: The electronegativity difference between atoms ranking bonds as follow: 1- Covalent (Non-polar) has difference less than 0.5 . 2- Polar covalent bond between 0.5-1.9. 3-  Ionic bond usually higher than 1.9. The above values may vary from source to other. Electronegativity is affected by  ionization energy and electron affinit
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Ionic bond

 Definition:  Ionic bond is the electrostatic interaction (attractions) which occurs between the positively charged ion and the negatively charged ion . How does it forms: It forms when electropositive element compelety transfer one or two electrons to and electronegative element, in this process one loses electrons (gaining positive charge) and the other gains electron (become negatively charged) , now positive and negative charges attract each other, forming ionic bond. But which element will loses the electrons and which one is the gainer?  the elements at the left side of periodic table looses electrons those are the least electronegative elements in the periodic table i.e electropositive. the electronegativity will increase going to the right in the periodic table , and from bottom to top, some the elements at the right sight of the periodic table are the one with highest electronegativity so those are the one who gain electrons becoming negatively charged. In the middle of peri
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